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OverviewSurvey research is the method of gathering data from respondents thought to be representative of some population, using an instrument composed of closed structure or open-ended items (questions). This is perhaps the dominant form of data collection in the social sciences, providing for efficient collection of data over broad populations, amenable to administration in person, by telephone, and over the Internet. Some forms of survey research by telephone or the Internet may be completely automated. Critics of survey research methodology hold it to be a method which artificially forces respondents to formulate opinions, masking the complexity of conflicting views and unconscious biases within each respondent, and critics note that in many arenas (e.g., race relations) survey items poorly predict actual behavior.See also focus group research and also the separate sections on sampling and on standard measures and scales. Also, analysis of repeated surveys is discussed in the separate section on time series analysis.
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Non-threatening background information questions (ex., demographic information) should be posed early so these controls will be available if the respondent fatigues and does not answer all the later items. The survey then proceeds to attitude questions, often sequencing from general and less threatening items toward more specific and more sensitive items.
Sensitive background items, particularly the income item, are usually put at the end. I However, the more toward the end of the survey an item is, the lower its response rate is apt to be.tems which measure the dependent variable(s) or other research-critical items should not be left to the end for this reason. Balancing the foregoing considerations, it is desirable to administer the survey with different forms with different orders so as to lessen the order/response bias.
Dividing instruments into sections enables a sense of progress and reduces survey fatigue, especially for mail and even web surveys. In general, face-to-face interviews can sustain attention for the longest period, such as an hour. Telephone surveys tend to be at the opposite end, sustaining attention for perhaps ten minutes or ten questions as a rule of thumb. In between are self-administered questionnaires by mail or on the web.
There is, of course, a trade-off between survey length and item response rate, with the rate of missing values increasing as respondents tire in long instruments. Testing survey length for pilot respondents similar to the eventual real respondents is one of the important reasons to pretest, discussed below. Testing also gives the researcher empirical information about time-to-complete, and telling respondents the time required is thought to reduce subject frustration and increase response rate.
Filter questions precede an item and are of the type, "Here is a statement about X. Not everyone has an opinion on this. Here is the statement: ... Do you have an opinion on that?" If the respondent answers 'Yes' to the filter question, then a forced-choice item is presented. Intensity items follow forced choice items and ask "How strongly do you feel about that -- extremely strongly, very strongly, ...?" A separate intensity item is needed because extremity on the forced choice item is not equivalent to intensity: one may hold an extreme position non-intensely and may intensely hold a middle position. In using forced choice rather than offering a 'no opinion' option, the researcher is assuming that those who would have given 'no opinion' responses will be low intensity on the intensity item, but not necessarily in the middle on the forced choice item itself. Filter items also avoid the use of "no opinion," "not sure," and "don't care," all of which have a tinge of social favorability bias (we are supposed to have an opinion, be sure, and care). If a middle choice is offered, "neither agree nor disagree" is a better item than "neutral" because it covers divided opinions, whereas "neutral" implies an overt decision to avoid sides.
The number of software options for survey research has become vast. Moreover, this is a moving target with new packages appearing with great regularity and existing software upgraded frequently. In this section a few illustrative resources are mentioned.